Technology

Math

The Mayans developed a system of mathematics containing many of the important elements of modern arithmetic. They understood the concepts of zero and negative numbers centuries before the Europeans – they were one of the first cultures to do so. The Mayans had two number recording systems. One was pictorial and utilized symbols of the heads of gods to represent numbers. The other system was more common, and resembled our decimal system. However, this system was vigesimal (based on units of twenty), while ours is based on units of ten. In this system, a dot had a value of one, a bar had a value of five, and a shell had a value of zero.

Astronomy

Astronomy was of central importance to the Mayans. Their religion was inextricably linked to the science (as was common at the time), and most of their large buildings were observatories, palaces or temples. The Mayans based their system of time and calendarics on astronomy, and both were highly accurate. The Mayans made significant advances in both areas, based on their astronomical observations.

Astronomer priests observed the sky from the top of temple-pyramids, studied and recorded the movement of celestial bodies. Despite the fact that they did not use magnifying or optical devices, their observations and analyses were highly accurate. These discoveries were painstakingly recorded, and the patterns observed helped the Mayans create their calendar.

Calendar

The Mayans were fascinated by the concept of the passage of time, and thought it was a supernatural force controlled by their numerous gods. The Mayans believed periods of time (such as months) were a “burden” to be passed from one god to another; the bearer of the time was responsible for how positive or negative the events in each period were.

            The Mayans had three calendars. The first calendar, the Tzolkin, was based on a 260 day sacred year, comprised of twenty months of 13 days each. Reserved for divination, this calendar was used for planning religious ceremonies and feasts.

The second calendar, the Haab, was a sophisticated calendar based on a 365 day solar year. (The Mayans calculated the length of a solar year is 365.2420, only slightly off from the current figure of 365.2422). However, this agricultural calendar was divided into eighteen months of twenty days each, making up a “tun” of 360 days. The extra five days at the end made up their own month, called the uayeb; this month was considered extremely unlucky and was dedicated to religious ceremonies for the following year.

The third calendar was known as the Long Count. The Long Count was by far the most accurate of all the ancient calendars. Comprised of repeating cycles of nine periods, it enabled the Mayans to monitor vast time spans. Dates were recorded in this system based on how much time has passed since the beginning of the Mayan calendar; the base date has been determined as 3114 BCE on modern Western calendars. Interestingly, this date extends far past the date their civilization began; this indicates the Mayans were capable not only of counting forwards in time, but also backward.

Mayan Calendar

Social Structure and Government

Mayan society was organized into a stratified social system with the ruler at the top, the noblemen and priests beneath him, the commoners beneath them, and the slaves at the bottom. The hierarchy was extremely rigid, and there was little upward mobility. It was particularly difficult for woman to obtain or maintain power.

The halach uinic, a term that means “true man” in the Mayan language, was the supreme ruler at very top of the Mayan social pyramid. He was the highest ranking individual in each city state and the most important figure in both religion and government. He was the centre of power and driving force of the city state.

The nobility, called the almehnob, ranked below the ruler. This group comprised the governing elite of the Mayan empire. Though they represented only a small percentage of the empire’s population, they controlled the government, warfare and commerce. Their powerful administrative positions were hereditary and patrilineal (descent through the male line). Every generation, one member of the family, usually the eldest male, was selected to be its head and inherited all of its possessions, land and wealth; this practice is known as primogeniture.

The priests, or ahkinob were among the most powerful members of the upper class. They operated under their own hierarchy, at the top of which was the Ah Kin, or chief priest; local priests who led religion in individual villages comprised the lowest sub-category. Priests played an integral role both in religious ceremonies and in daily life. Priests were responsible for naming children according to astrological signs, celebrating marriages, conducting burials and teaching in schools where the male children of the nobility were educated.

Below the priests, were the commoners, known as the ah chembal uinicob. Experts believe that there was a ranking system within this broad category, with craftsmen, merchants and minor officials occupying a middling position within it. It is also possible that an entirely separate middle class existed in Mayan society. Members of the common class were responsible for virtually all Mayan trade. The large majority of commoners were farmers, who were essential in building and developing city states.

At the bottom were the slaves, or ppentacob. Some ppentacob were born into slavery, while others were orphans or individuals captured and enslaved as prisoners of war. Historical evidence suggests that many Mayan slaves were criminals, since the civilization had no jails. Slaves’ work ranged from simple tasks such as grinding corn to dangerous or strenuous manual labour.

Daily Life

Marriage

In the Mayan empire, it was common for girls to marry as young as fourteen, while boys married at around eighteen. Marriages were arranged by the groom’s families, though matchmakers were often consulted; ancestry and a compatible astrological sign were considered essential in a prospective partner. There were strict taboos against the marriage of a man and woman with the same paternal name, as it indicated they were part of the same family. To seal the marriage agreement, the bride’s parents paid the groom’s parents a dowry. A priest would set the wedding date based on an analysis of astrological signs, and the ceremony itself took place in the bride’s family home. The newlyweds would live in the bride’s home for seven years, allowing the groom to work off his debt to the bride’s parents; only after this could the couple move into their own home. The Mayan man, as husband, father, and head of his household, was expected to provide for his family, as well as the government, through hard work and by paying taxes. Mayan woman, as wives and mothers, were responsible for raising children, preparing meals, and keeping house.

Children

Childbirth was an important event in Mayan society. Newborns were formally presented to their grandparents in a ceremony celebrating their birth. The babies were named by priests according to favourable astronomical conditions. Mayan children were given four names: a private name which was chosen at the naming ceremony, a public nickname, and two names derived from the names of their parents. Children were educated and taught life skills from a very young age. Lower class boys were taught to farm, while lower class girls were taught household chores. Upper class girls were also taught to keep house, though they had a staff of slaves to perform the chores for them. Wealthy boys received a formal education in reading, writing and mathematics.

Beauty/Vanity

Historical images of the Mayans that survive depict the people as short and wide-set, with broad, slanted foreheads, thick, downturned lips, copper to brown skin, dark, almond-shaped eyes, prominent noses and high cheekbones. Mayans found a sloped forehead far more physically appealing than a straight one, so families would strap two boards to a newborn’s skull to create the desired forehead shape in the front, and a flat, straight head in the back. Mothers also tied strings of beads in front of small children in an effort to make them cross-eyed, a condition Mayans also found beautiful. Many wealthy Mayans of both sexes filed their teeth to sharp points and studded them with precious stones. Tattoos, piercings and body paint were also common; some Mayans even carved decorative scars into their bodies.

Clothing

Due to the yearlong heat and humidity in the Mesoamerican region, Mayans dressed for decoration, not for warmth. Most fabric was spun and woven from cotton, the Mayan cash crop, and dyed using the juices from berries and insects. The clothing of the noble and common classes were notably different. Noblemen and women dressed ornately, with sandals, long capes made from jaguar fur, elaborate headdresses and ornate jewelry. Members of the lower classes wore a simple loincloth and vest, both made of cotton; women completed the outfit with a shirt and shawl.

City States

In the Mayan empire, the city states were the ceremonial centres and served as a meeting place for political, religious and social events. Consequently, the most important buildings in the city centres were those for government leaders and priests. There were several features common to most Mayan city states, such as a central plaza, one or more adjacent temple-pyramids and palaces for the halach uinic (ruler).

Upper Class Homes and Dining

Upper-class homes were large and located near the ruler’s palace. They were divided internally by a partition, splitting the building into a public and private section. The front of the house acted as a foyer, living room and hall for receiving guests. The back of the house was used by the family. The household was maintained by several slaves, who also prepared meals. Members of the upper class ate well; though the content of their diet was similar to their lower class counterparts, they enjoyed greater variety and quality. Some of the most popular dishes included venison and turkey.

Lower Classes

The daily life of lower class Mayan people was quite busy. The women’s days started before 4:00 AM, when they made breakfast for their husbands and their sons who, by 5:00, went to work in their fields next to their thatched–roof homes. They also tended the communal fields. In the afternoon, the men and young boys sometimes hunted. They usually killed birds with blowpipes and clay pellets, but sometimes hunted with spears. When they returned home, they had warm baths prepared for them by the women. When they finished, they would eat dinner. The women ate afterwards. The dinners usually contained any combination of meat, maize (from their fields), rabbit, turkey, black beans, and cornmeal. In the evening, the men would produce items to trade while the women would weave and spin cotton.

Slaves

Slaves lived in huts on the outskirts of town, performed the hardest and most dangerous menial labour and were sacrificed to the Gods on special occasions.

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