Introduction

The Mayan civilization was one of the greatest cultures of ancient America in terms of duration, spread and sophisticated accomplishments in the areas of mathematics, astronomy, architecture and art. The Mayan’s ability to construct mammoth stone structures without the wheel or beasts of burden continues to amaze. People today are still awed by the spectacular Mayan temples and are fascinated by their hieroglyphs. The Mayas developed an extremely accurate 365 day calendar with a leap year, understood arithmetic and used a numbering system with zero almost a thousand years before the Europeans did. What began as a group of simple farmers slashing and burning the rainforest to cultivate crops, developed into a unique empire that endured two millennia, spanned 325,000 square kilometres, included 200 cities, and had 10 million inhabitants. It is a great loss to humanity that the Mayan codices – centuries of records and libraries of books written on bark paper - were destroyed by Spanish invaders. It is shocking that the Maya’s beautiful buildings and monuments were destroyed to build churches and that the jungle has reclaimed most of their cities.  It is our responsibility to preserve what is left of the once great Mayan empire.

Temple I at Tikal

Itinerary

The Mayan Mystery tour will take place from July 4^th through July 17^th 2011, around the Yucatan peninsula. It will begin in Uxmal, where we will stay for 4 nights. This will give us plenty of time to explore Uxmal and take day trips by luxury air conditioned coach to both Jaina Island and Mayapan. We will then take our coach to Chichen Itza, where we will stay in a local hotel for 3 nights. We will explore the ancient cities of Chichen Itza and Tulum from this base. We will travel by coach to Tikal, Guatemala where we will be staying for 2 nights. Then we will travel to Bonampak and stay for 2 nights. Our last stop will be Palenque where we will stay for 2 nights before returning to Uxmal. From there, our vacationers can return to Toronto or continue their adventures elsewhere in Mexico

Uxmal

Uxmal is a late Classic site (A.D. 600-900) which is sometimes considered the most architecturally interesting of all Mayan centres. Its name means “built three times” even though it was actually rebuilt five times.

The Pyramid and Governor’s Palace in Uxmal

 Jaina Island

Jaina Island was a major burial site during the late Classic Period of the Mayan civilization. It is situated on the west of the Yucatan Peninsula, a location that was significant because, when viewed from the mainland, the island lay in the path of the setting sun. The Mayas believed that the sun entered the underworld at night, and that the souls of the people buried on Jaina Island could follow it along the path of the setting sun.

Handcrafted male figurine from Jaina Island

Mayapan

Mayapan is one of the largest Mayan sites on the north-west part of the Yucatan peninsula. It was the most powerful city of the Post-Classic Period of the Mayan civilization. From 1244 to 1441 CE, Mayapan controlled the entire Yucatan Peninsula. It was the last capital of a Mayan city-state in the Yucatan, and its art and architecture beautifully reflect the trade, communication and cultural exchange of Mesoamerica.

The Observatory at Mayapan

Chichen Itza

Chichen Itza is a Maya-Toltec site that spans the Classic and post-Classic periods (from A.D. 600 to 1200). It is one of the largest and most impressive Maya centres.

Temple at Chichen Itza

Tulum

Built high on cliffs overlooking the Gulf of Mexico, Tulum was constructed in 1200 CE, as the Mayan Empire was declining. It reached the peak of its importance in the 15^th century.

Ruined city of Tulum

Tikal

The capital of the Classic Maya world, Tikal was the largest and most influential Maya center. Rebuilt many times on an increasingly grandiose scale, Tikal was inhabited from around 600 BCE until the end of the Classic Maya civilization.

Stelae and temple at Tikal

Bonampak

Paintings depicting a military raid, a triumphal procession and a sacrificial ritual adorn the walls of the Temple of the Murals at Bonampak, a small but impressive late Classic Maya site (650-850 CE).

The Murals of Bonampak

Palenque

Palenque is a dramatic ruined city built at the foothills of the Tumbalá Mountains. It flourished in the 7^th century during the reigns of Lord Pacal and his son Chan-Bahlum.

The city of Palenque

History

People first entered the Americas from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait approximately 20,000 years ago. These individuals travelled down through North America. In around 1500 BC, people settled in agriculturally-based villages in the highlands of Guatemala. These people were the Olmecs, who disappeared in 300 AD. Little is known about them, but they are known to have been skilled at stone carving. The Olmecs influenced many of the features of Mayan civilization, including their agricultural abilities, calendar, and form of hieroglyphic writing.

The Pre-Classic period of the Mayan civilization began in 600 BCE. Over the next 900 years, the small villages developed into cities and ceremonial centres that, along with the surrounding land, made up independent city-states led by separate kings. In 500 BCE, settlements had been founded in the northern parts of Yucatán (present-day Mexico) and major city centres had been established in the central lowlands. The city-states depended on an agricultural and trade economy. The staple crop was corn, although other crops such as cocoa, cotton, and many different types of fruits and vegetables.

By 200 CE the cities had grown into urban centres with temples, palaces and courts, pyramids, and marketplace plazas. Between 300 and 900 CE, in what is known as the Classic Period, the Mayan empire developed into the most advanced civilization in the Americas. This period in Mayan history is known as the “Golden Age” because most of the artistic and cultural achievements of the Mayan empire were made during this time. Two of the most important cities of the Classic Period were Tikal and Palenque. Tikal was the largest Mayan city, and had over 3000 major structures. The population was between 50,000 and 100,000 people. Tikal was not just a bustling Mayan urban centre – the city also contains many of the tombs of the early kings and a temple where offerings and food would have been left for the dead.  Palenque was ruled by Lord Pacal, perhaps the most famous Mayan king, and later, by his son Chan-Bahlum. Lord Pacal’s rule marked a golden age for Palenque; art and architecture flourished, and many of the surviving buildings of Palenque were built during this time. After Chan-Bahlum succeeded his father, the young king constructed three pyramids in addition to the one built by his father. These pyramids marked the most sacred space in Palenque. The city became known as a city of sophistication; it was – and still is - famous for its beautiful stucco art.

The Classic Period declined between 800 to 925 CE. Ruling dynasties ended and there was a rapid deterioration of the artistic, religious and intellectual life. The once elaborate rituals of the Classic period now only held a shadow of their past splendour. No new construction projects were started, and many buildings were left unfinished as the cities were slowly abandoned and the jungle grew to swallow them. A possible cause of this decline was overpopulation; as the population swelled, it became increasingly difficult for the empire to produce enough food to support its subjects. This food shortage could have led to malnutrition, widespread hunger and starvation. These factors led to a decrease in the Mayan population; in the central area of the empire alone, the population shrunk to 450,000 from 3 million people.

Another possible cause for the deterioration of Classic Mayan society is the invasions from the north and west. The Mayan attitude towards war had shifted – it had become a popular method of gaining land and power, an offensive rather than defensive method. The aggression and animosity between city states weakened trade links between them.

Despite the collapse of the Classic Period in the southern and middle parts of the Mayan lands, in the Yucatan Peninsula, the Mayan culture continued to thrive. In the time from 925 to 1250, known as the Post-Classical period, art and culture flourished in the northern cities such as Uxmal, Chichen Itza and Tulum. Between 987 and 1194 CE, Chichen Itza was the one of the largest and most important cities in Yucatan. When the Toltec people arrived in the lands, they assimilated into Mayan society, contributing some of their own culture to that of the Mayans. These additions included the introduction of a new god – Kukulcan, The Feathered Serpent - who was worshipped by both the Maya and Toltec at Chichen Itza. The Toltec also influence Mayan architecture and the monuments of Chichen Itza.

In 1000 CE, an alliance was formed between the cities of Chichen Itza and its neighbouring cities, Uxmal and Mayapan. Mayapan betrayed this alliance in 1149 CE by capturing and holding members of the other cities’ nobility prisoner. Mayapan defeated Chichen Itza between 1224 and 1244 CE, leaving Mayapan to dominate the Yucatan Peninsula unchallenged. The city state continued to control the area until 1441 CE, when it was sacked and burned by an unknown tribe.

Mayan civilization declined between 1250 and 1500 CE. The cultural role of religion lessened, as did the daily role of priests. The religious buildings constructed at that time were small and poorly built.

The end of the Mayan civilization came with the arrival of the Spanish in the sixteenth century. Hernando Cortez, the first of the Spanish conquistadors, landed on the island of Cozumel, off the Yucatan Coast. The Spanish soldiers quickly defeated the Mesoamerican people in the regions that are now Guatemala and Honduras, strategically using the rivalries between the city states to their advantage. The Spanish conquest of the Yucatan was long and difficult, despite the advantage their horses and advanced weaponry gave them; they were faced with an unfamiliar land and were fighting a bellicose people. Their colonial efforts were aided by the European diseases they brought to the Mesoamerican people (albeit unintentionally). As the Mayans had no immunity to them, diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza decimated their population – between 75 and 90% of the Mayans were killed. Although the Spanish were supposed to treat the Mayans humanely, the conquistadors used cruel methods to impose European culture and values upon the Mesoamericans; they tortured and killed countless Mayans in an attempt to convert the people to Christianity, and forced many into slavery. By 1524, the Spanish were in complete control of the Yucatan region, having subjugated the Mayan people.

Despite Spanish cruelty, the Mayan people did not disappear entirely; approximately 2 million descendents of the Mayans still live in parts of Mexico, Guatamala, Honduras, El Salvador and Belize today. These modern-day Mayans live a life similar to those lived by their ancestors – they grow corn as their staple crop, and live in village compounds. Many are even adherents to the ancient Mayan religion.

Geography

            The heart of the Mayan civilization lay in the highlands of modern Guatemala. From that region, the Mayan empire spread throughout Central American and Southern Mexico. The Mayan empire was ideally located for trade, between Central America and Mexico. The empire’s terrain was extremely diverse, ranging from volcanic mountains to dense forests. The area can be divided into three regions: the Central territory, the Northern province and the Southern lands. The heat, humidity and heavy rainfalls make the Central territory one of the least hospitable areas in the Western hemisphere. The Northern province is the driest of the three regions, and has few natural resources. In spite of this, Mayan culture thrived in the province, which is home to Chichen Itza, one of the most important Mayan centres. The Southern lands include the Pacific coastal plain and mountainous highlands. With fertile soil, abundant wildlife and moderate climate, the region is very hospitable, and Mayan centres developed in the area’s tablelands and valleys (though most cultural development occurred elsewhere). The geographical differences in the three regions of the Mayan empire influenced the architecture of the city states in each. At its peak, the Mayan Empire covered 325,000 square miles; it contained 200 cities and 10 million inhabitants.



Economy

The Mayans engaged in three man economic activities: agriculture, minor industry and trade. The upper and lower class worked together in a manner similar to the Medieval feudal system; the common class owed their goods and services to the nobility, and paid them in the form of salt, cloth and crops.

During the Pre-Classic period, the Mayans lived in small, relatively primitive villages and operated in a mostly agrarian economy. Much of the Maya’s prosperity was the result of their farming skills. They produced a wide variety of crops, ranging from cocoa and cotton to squash and sweet potatoes. The principle crop, however, was maize. In addition to their agricultural endeavours, Mayan farmers also raised livestock, such as turkeys and guinea pigs, and occasionally hunted. Initially lacking farming equipment and draft animals, Mayans utilized milpas (a slash and burn type of agriculture) to create new cornfields - after cutting as many trees as possible, the farmers burned the remaining foliage. This process of burning fertilized the land, releasing nutrients into the soil. The slash and burn system was not sustainable, and in the Classic Period, it was supplemented by intensive agricultural practices, including raised fields, irrigation systems, and crop rotation. The Mayans also “terraced” their hilly land to maximize maize production, levelling off strips of land, much like the Incas. Priests closely regulated all aspects of the agricultural process, and dictated the dates for specific agricultural activities.

During the Classic period, roads were built in the empire, facilitating transportation, communication and trade; trade also helped unite the Mayan people. The Mayans produced a surplus of food, enabling them to develop trade, which became an essential component of their economy. Trade routes developed across Mesoamerica, and because of their position between Mexico and Central American, the Mayan empire acted as an intermediary between the two regions. The Mayans employed a barter trade system, though cocoa beans were used as an informal currency throughout the empire. Slaves were used to carry goods over short distances, while longer distances were covered by canoes. Mayans utilized three important long distance routes: a southern route linking central Mexico to Central America, the central route connecting the Peten Area of Guatemala, and the northern route that traced the Yucatan coast.

            The Mayans produced crafts for daily and ceremonial uses. For example, they sculpted pottery and wove baskets to carry domestic and trade goods. Artisans also fashioned jewellery out of jade, copper, gold and silver for both decorative and ceremonial purposes. As trade developed, so did specialized professions and craft guilds in the city states. Although it has not been proven, it is thought that this helped give rise to the Mayan merchant (middle) class.

            The Post-Classic Period saw the growth of more cities based on agriculture, and trade continued to thrive. However, during the period of decline, from 1250 to 1546 CE, the economy began to deteriorate as a result of numerous wars. The new diseases brought into the empire by the Europeans decimated the Mayan population, damaging the empire’s economy beyond repair.

Ancient Mayan Agriculture

Religion

Religion was an integral part of Mayan life. The civilization was a theocracy, and both religion and the government were controlled by one leader.

The Mayan religion was a polytheistic faith comprised of approximately 150 gods and goddesses. Each deity was associated with a part of the natural world - such as the sky, wind and corn – and they were held responsible for all aspects of Mayan daily life. Mayan gods were demanding and unpredictable, and the Mayans relied on priests to interpret their will. It was believed that only the priests had the power to receive and interpret the word of the gods. The priests used divination and prophecy to distinguish lucky days from unlucky days. This practice relied on their calendar system and knowledge of astronomy, and sometimes involved the ingestion of hallucinogenic herbs. The priests used their findings to advise the rulers on such matters as agriculture and waging war.

The priests in the Mayan civilization were part of the ruling elite. Priesthood was hereditary, and priests were succeeded by their eldest son or closest male relative. Mayan priests also practiced medicine, blessed the dead or dying, and educated candidates for priesthood. Candidates learned astronomy, mathematics, hieroglyphics, calendrics, and the proper method for performing many rituals.

The Mayans believed that their existence depended on the goodwill of their gods. Priests performed various religious rituals, sacrifices and ceremonies in an effort to please and honour the gods. The most important of these religious events were those held in honour of the harvest gods. The performance of the correct ritual, ceremony, or sacrifice at the appropriate time was essential. The Mayan religion was brutal; virtually all of the rituals involved blood and sacrifice, because human blood was thought to be essential to sustain the gods. Some rituals required bloodletting, a practice that was considered an honour and was usually reserved for the nobility, and other rituals called for sacrifices. Kings often led slave-raids to supply their priests with candidates, though orphaned children and criminals were other candidates. It was thought that the sacrificial victims would receive great rewards in the afterlife.

The Mayan Gods

The principle deities of the Mayan religion were Hunab Ku, Itzamna, Ixchel, Kinich Ahau, Hun Hunahpu, and Chac.

Hunab Ku was the supreme Mayan deity, the head of the Mayan pantheon. The Mayans believed he rebuilt the earth after a series of disasters. He was an impersonal deity who did not often interact with the people, which was uncommon in the Mayan faith. Little else is known about the god.

Itzamna, which means “Lizard House,” was possibly Hunab Ku’s son. Residing in the heavens, he was the supreme being of earth and sky. The Mayans believed the god also introduced their calendar and system of writing to the priests. Itzamna ruled the thirteen layers of heaven, though each individual level was ruled by a lesser god.

Ixchel was Itzamna’s consort, despite the fact that she was married to another god. Ixchel was seen as the “Mother of all Gods” and the greatest of all the goddesses. She was the goddess of the moon, healing and pregnancy, as well as the matron of weaving (an art form she invented), and the protector of woman and children.

Kinich Ahau, or “Sun-faced Lord,” was the god of the sun. Often appearing in the shape of a firebird, Kinich Ahau was an important deity – he provided the light and heat essential for human life. Kinich Ahau was said to be young when he woke at dawn, but by the end of his journey to the western horizon, was thought to be old and bearded.

Hun Hunahpu was a god of fertility (“bringer of growth”) and the maize god; he is arguably the most important Mayan deity, as he presided over the Mayan’s most essential crop. He is the father of the Mayan hero twins Xbalanque and Hunahpu. According to Mayan legend, he was beheaded and killed in the underworld, but was reborn with his son’s help. He is depicted as a young man, sometimes with maize growing from his head.

Chac, the Mayan god of rain, thunder and lightning, is portrayed in Mayan art painted blue, with hair tied on top of his head and a long nose. Still worshipped by Mayans today, Chac serves a dual role; though he can be a benefactor, bringing good weather and life, he can also be destructive, bringing famine, floods or violent storms. Mayans made offerings to Chac at the Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza to ensure his goodwill.

Death in the Mayan Religion

Death was feared in the Mayan tradition. The Mayan afterlife was divided into thirteen levels of heaven (ruled by thirteen individual gods, and in general by Itzamna) and nine layers of hell, arranged beneath the earth. A place of fear and dread, this underworld was ruled by evil gods, like the Xibalban lords of death and the Jaguar God of Night. The few individuals in the deities’ favour would continue their afterlife in one of the levels of heaven, while others would be trapped in the depths of hell. A priest was called when a person was on their deathbed to bless them and perform an exorcism to drive away any evil spirits. After death, common people in the Mayan empire were buried under the floor of their houses with food and tools. The nobility, on the other hand, were given elaborate burials by their families; they were laid to rest in intricately adorned beautiful temples or underground vaults, which were then filled with valuable commodities.

Royal tomb at Palenque

Art and Culture

The Mayans were artists who created exquisite artwork in stone, wood, paint, plaster, jade, ceramic and shell. Weavers created beautifully designed fabrics and metalsmiths made jewellery from jade, gold and shells. Artists did not always remain anonymous, and often “signed” their art. Many of the more prolific artists were members of the royal families.

Mayan pottery and ceramics were common forms of art. Everyday pottery was probably made by the women, because it was used for cooking and preserving food. Ceremonial pottery which was not intended for domestic use but was made to glorify the gods, was likely created by Mayan men. The potters used local clay to create their pieces, and did so without the use of a pottery wheel. Each piece was intended to be unique, so a range of patterns and subject matter were used.

Mayan art focused on a wide variety of subject matter; it often depicted the rulers, who were considered intermediaries between the people and the gods, or the deities themselves. Another popular subject was the powerful jaguar, who also featured prominently in Mayan religion and mythology. Ceramic plates, vases and other objects were often painted with scenes of court life, religious rituals and deities. Ceramics that were intended for burial often showed the lords of Xibalba, the underworld. Much of Mayan art was concerned with the natural portrayal of figures and events, although some artists used patterns that were purely decorative. The expressive nature of the Mayan art is shown through the painted ceramics, particularly plates and vases. For their paints, Mayans used vegetables and minerals to create a variety of colours.

Like their art, Mayan cities were vibrantly colourful, since the exteriors of their buildings (and some of their interiors) were painted in vivid hues. Common subjects for murals were the nobility and rulers. The majority of the Mayan murals have long since faded or been ruined, but in rare places such as Bonampak, some have survived intact. The murals at Bonampak depict a military raid, a triumphal procession and a sacrificial ritual.

The Mayans were not only talented artists, they were also master architects and builders; they constructed massive pyramids and palaces of stone without the benefit of wheels (which were useless in the jungle) or draft animals. As a result, the labour and effort put into the construction of the buildings was incredible. It is interesting to note that the Mayans built more pyramids than the ancient Egyptians.

Mayan cities were large, well-designed and the buildings were beautifully decorated. Mayans often produced intricately carved stone friezes that ran along the outer walls of buildings and which always contained a message. The interiors of many public Mayan buildings, on the other hand, were very plain, and had little or no decoration.

Certain main buildings and infrastructures could be found in virtually every Mayan city. For example, all cities had a system of roads and causeways, as well as a sweat baths, burial vaults, storage places, and underground cisterns for storing water. Most cities had observatories, used by the priests, and all cities had a temple and palace. Some cities also had aqueducts (that remaining standing to this day) that brought water into the city, while a separate drainage system carried off excess water.

Despite their building skill, the Mayans never learned how to construct a rounded arch. Instead, they developed a corbel arch, shaped like an arrow or an inverted “V.” The Mayans’ corbel arches were constructed by overlapping blocks, each moving closer inwards until they met at a single stone. This type of arch put a large amount of pressure on the walls, which consequently had to be very thick to support the weight. The later innovation of using smaller stones set in concrete allowed for more freedom in design and offered more structural stability. Because the later arches still required thick walls, and the corbel arch lacked the strength to cover large areas, Mayan building sites could not be larger than three metres wide; this is the reason Mayan palaces had small rooms and narrow hallways.

In addition to constructing and decorating buildings, the Mayans also carved colossal standing stones called stelae. The stelae ranged from one to ten metres tall. They were carved with hieroglyphs indicating important dates and events and were used as monuments to the kings and to the high-ranking nobility.

Mayan hieroglyphics were a largely phonetic writing system, although there were some logograms (symbols that represent words). Each hieroglyphic is a unique pictorial symbol that represents a different sound, whole word, number, day or month. The glyphs were arranged in double vertical columns read from top to bottom and from left to right. Glyphs were inscribed on walls, stelae, altars, panels, steps, pottery and even painted into Maya codices.

The Mayan codices were books that were stored in libraries. They consisted of long strips of folded paper made from the bark of a fig tree. Every page contained a mixture of hieroglyphics, numbers and pictures. The codices contained tables and calculations that were used to control the dates of rituals and keep track of agricultural and astronomical cycles. The codices were probably used most often by the priests for divination and for predicting the future; priests monitored seasonal changes, regulated activities such as hunting and travelling, and dictated at what times the Mayan people were to make offerings to their deities. When the Spanish invaded the Mayan cities, they destroyed almost all of the codices in an attempt to bring the European culture to the Mayan civilization and to convert them to Christianity. This was a devastating blow to the preservation of the history of the Mayan empire and today, only three codices remain intact.